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Home / Artlabeling Activity Blood Vessels of the Thoracic Cavity Pearson Diagram

Artlabeling Activity Blood Vessels of the Thoracic Cavity Pearson Diagram

6.3 Bone Structure

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Describe the microscopic and gross anatomical structures of bones

  • Identify the gross anatomical features of a bone
  • Describe the histology of bone tissue, including the function of bone cells and matrix
  • Compare and contrast compact and spongy bone
  • Identify the structures that compose meaty and spongy os
  • Depict how bones are nourished and innervated
  • function?

Os tissue (osseous tissue) differs profoundly from other tissues in the trunk. Bone is hard and many of its functions depend on that characteristic hardness. Later discussions in this affiliate volition show that bone is also dynamic in that its shape adjusts to accommodate stresses. This section volition examine the gross beefcake of bone kickoff and then move on to its histology.

Gross Beefcake of Basic

A long bone has two main regions: the diaphysis and the epiphysis (Figure half dozen.3.one). The diaphysis is the hollow, tubular shaft that runs between the proximal and distal ends of the bone. Inside the diaphysis is the medullary cavity, which is filled with yellowish bone marrow in an adult. The outer walls of the diaphysis ( cortex, cortical bone)are composed of dense and hard compact bone, a form of osseous tissue.

This illustration depicts an anterior view of the right femur, or thigh bone. The inferior end that connects to the knee is at the bottom of the diagram and the superior end that connects to the hip is at the top of the diagram. The bottom end of the bone contains a smaller lateral bulge and a larger medial bulge. A blue articular cartilage covers the inner half of each bulge as well as the small trench that runs between the bulges. This area of the inferior end of the bone is labeled the distal epiphysis. Above the distal epiphysis is the metaphysis, where the bone tapers from the wide epiphysis into the relatively thin shaft. The entire length of the shaft is the diaphysis. The superior half of the femur is cut away to show its internal contents. The bone is covered with an outer translucent sheet called the periosteum. At the midpoint of the diaphysis, a nutrient artery travels through the periosteum and into the inner layers of the bone. The periosteum surrounds a white cylinder of solid bone labeled compact bone. The cavity at the center of the compact bone is called the medullary cavity. The inner layer of the compact bone that lines the medullary cavity is called the endosteum. Within the diaphysis, the medullary cavity contains a cylinder of yellow bone marrow that is penetrated by the nutrient artery. The superior end of the femur is also connected to the diaphysis by a metaphysis. In this upper metaphysis, the bone gradually widens between the diaphysis and the proximal epiphysis. The proximal epiphysis of the femur is roughly hexagonal in shape. However, the upper right side of the hexagon has a large, protruding knob. The femur connects and rotates within the hip socket at this knob. The knob is covered with a blue colored articular cartilage. The internal anatomy of the upper metaphysis and proximal epiphysis are revealed. The medullary cavity in these regions is filled with the mesh like spongy bone. Red bone marrow occupies the many cavities within the spongy bone. There is a clear, white line separating the spongy bone of the upper metaphysis with that of the proximal epiphysis. This line is labeled the epiphyseal line.
Effigy vi.iii.1 – Anatomy of a Long Bone: A typical long bone showing gross anatomical features.

The wider section at each end of the bone is called the epiphysis (plural = epiphyses), which is filled internally with spongy os, another type of osseous tissue. Cerise os marrow fills the spaces between the spongy bone in some long basic. Each epiphysis meets the diaphysis at the metaphysis.During growth, the metaphysis contains the epiphyseal plate, the site of long os elongation described afterward in the chapter. When the os stops growing in early on adulthood (approximately 18–21 years), the epiphyseal plate becomes an epiphyseal line seen in the figure.

Lining the inside of the bone adjacent to the medullary cavity is a layer of os cells called the endosteum (endo- = "inside"; osteo- = "os"). These os cells (described later) cause the os to abound, repair, and remodel throughout life. On the outside of bones there is another layer of cells that abound, repair and remodel bone besides. These cells are part of the outer double layered construction called the periosteum (peri– = "around" or "surrounding"). The cellular layer is adjacent to the cortical bone and is covered by an outer gristly layer of dumbo irregular connective tissue (see Figure 6.3.4a). The periosteum also contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels that attend compact os. Tendons and ligaments adhere to basic at the periosteum. The periosteum covers the entire outer surface except where the epiphyses meet other bones to form joints (Figure half dozen.3.2). In this region, the epiphyses are covered with articular cartilage, a sparse layer of hyaline cartilage that reduces friction and acts as a daze absorber.

The top of this illustration shows an anterior view of the proximal end of the femur. The top image has two zoom in boxes. The left box is situated on the border between the diaphysis and the metaphysis. Its callout magnifies the periosteum on the right side of the femur. The view shows that the periosteum contains an outer fibrous layer composed of yellow fibers. The inner layer of the periosteum is called the cellular layer, which is composed of irregularly shaped cells. The cellular layer gradually shrinks in width as it transitions from the metaphysis to the diaphysis. A small blood vessel runs through both layers and enters the bone. The right zoom in box magnifies the endosteum on the left side of the bone. The box is situated just inferior to the border between the diaphysis and the metaphysic. It calls out the inner edge of the compact bone layer. The magnified view shows concentric circles of dark colored bone matrix. Between the circles are small cavities containing orange, diamond-shaped cells labeled osteocytes. The left edge of the bone matrix is lined with a single layer of flattened cells called the endosteum. There is a large cell, labeled an osteoclast, between two of the endosteum cells. The osteoclast is cutting a depression into the bony matrix under the endosteum. At another part of the endosteum, three smaller osteoblasts are secreting a blue substance that builds up the outermost layer of the bony matrix.
Figure vi.32 – Periosteum and Endosteum: The periosteum forms the outer surface of os, and the endosteum lines the medullary cavity.

Apartment bones, like those of the attic, consist of a layer of diploë (spongy bone), covered on either side by a layer of compact bone (Figure 6.three.3). The ii layers of compact bone and the interior spongy bone piece of work together to protect the internal organs. If the outer layer of a cranial bone fractures, the brain is all the same protected by the intact inner layer.

Figure six.3.3 – Anatomy of a Flat Bone: This cantankerous-section of a flat os shows the spongy bone (diploë) covered on either side by a layer of meaty bone.

Osseous Tissue: Os Matrix and Cells

Bone Matrix
Osseous tissue is a connective tissue and like all connective tissues contains relatively few cells and big amounts of extracellular matrix. By mass, osseous tissue matrix consists of 1/3rd collagen fibers and ii/3rds calcium phosphate salt. The collagen provides a scaffolding surface for inorganic common salt crystals to attach (meet Figure 6.3.4a). These table salt crystals form when calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate combine to create hydroxyapatite. Hydroxyapatite besides incorporates other inorganic salts like magnesium hydroxide, fluoride, and sulfate as information technology crystallizes, or calcifies, on the collagen fibers. The hydroxyapatite crystals give basic their hardness and strength, while the collagen fibers give them a framework for calcification and gives the bone flexibility so that information technology tin can bend without beingness breakable. For example, if you removed all the organic matrix (collagen) from a bone, it would crumble and shatter readily (run into Figure 6.3.4b, upper console). Conversely, if you remove all the inorganic matrix (minerals) from bone and leave the collagen, the os becomes overly flexible and cannot conduct weight (see Figure six.3.4b, lower panel).
Figure vi.iii.4a Calcified collagen fibers from bone (scanning electron micrograph, x,000 X, By Sbertazzo – Own work, CC BY-SA three.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/due west/alphabetize.php?curid=20904735)
Figure half dozen.3.4b Contributions of the organic and inorganic matrices of bone. Paradigm from Ammerman figure 6-5, Pearson

Bone Cells

Although bone cells compose less than 2% of the os mass, they are crucial to the function of bones. Four types of cells are constitute within bone tissue: osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteogenic cells, and osteoclasts (Effigy vi.three.5).

The top of this diagram shows the cross section of a generic bone with three zoom in boxes. The first box is on the periosteum. The second box is on the middle of the compact bone layer. The third box is on the inner edge of the compact bone where it transitions into the spongy bone. The callout in the periosteum points to two images. In the first image, four osteoblast cells are sitting end to end on the periosteum. The osteoblasts are roughly square shaped, except for one of the cells which is developing small, finger like projections. The caption says,
Figure six.three.five – Os Cells: Four types of cells are found within os tissue. Osteogenic cells are undifferentiated and develop into osteoblasts. Osteoblasts eolith bone matrix. When osteoblasts go trapped within the calcified matrix, they become osteocytes. Osteoclasts develop from a dissimilar jail cell lineage and act to resorb bone.

The osteoblast is the bone cell responsible for forming new bone and is found in the growing portions of bone, including the endosteum and the cellular layer of the periosteum. Osteoblasts, which do non divide, synthesize and secrete the collagen matrix and other proteins. As the secreted matrix surrounding the osteoblast calcifies, the osteoblast become trapped within information technology; as a result, it changes in construction and becomes an osteocyte, the principal cell of mature bone and the most common type of bone cell. Each osteocyte is located in a small-scale crenel in the bone tissue called a lacuna (lacunae for plural). Osteocytes maintain the mineral concentration of the matrix via the secretion of enzymes. Like osteoblasts, osteocytes lack mitotic activeness. They can communicate with each other and receive nutrients via long cytoplasmic processes that extend through canaliculi (singular = canaliculus), channels within the bone matrix. Osteocytes are connected to one another inside the canaliculi via gap junctions.

If osteoblasts and osteocytes are incapable of mitosis, then how are they replenished when old ones die? The answer lies in the properties of a tertiary category of bone cells—the osteogenic (osteoprogenitor) prison cell. These osteogenic cells are undifferentiated with loftier mitotic activity and they are the only bone cells that divide. Immature osteogenic cells are found in the cellular layer of the periosteum and the endosteum. They differentiate and develop into osteoblasts.

The dynamic nature of bone ways that new tissue is constantly formed, and onetime, injured, or unnecessary bone is dissolved for repair or for calcium release. The cells responsible for bone resorption, or breakdown, are the osteoclasts. These multinucleated cells originate from monocytes and macrophages, 2 types of white blood cells, non from osteogenic cells. Osteoclasts are continually breaking down quondam bone while osteoblasts are continually forming new os. The ongoing balance between osteoblasts and osteoclasts is responsible for the abiding but subtle reshaping of bone. Table 6.three reviews the bone cells, their functions, and locations.

Bone Cells (Table 6.3)
Cell type Function Location
Osteogenic cells Develop into osteoblasts Endosteum, cellular layer of the periosteum
Osteoblasts Os formation Endosteum, cellular layer of the periosteum, growing portions of bone
Osteocytes Maintain mineral concentration of matrix Entrapped in matrix
Osteoclasts Bone resorption Endosteum, cellular layer of the periosteum, at sites of old, injured, or unneeded bone

Compact and Spongy Bone

Well-nigh bones comprise meaty and spongy osseous tissue, but their distribution and concentration vary based on the bone's overall function. Although compact and spongy os are fabricated of the same matrix materials and cells, they are unlike in how they are organized. Compact bone is dumbo and so that it can withstand compressive forces, while spongy os (also called cancellous bone) has open spaces and is supportive, but too lightweight and can exist readily remodeled to adjust irresolute body needs.

Meaty Bone

Compact bone is the denser, stronger of the ii types of osseous tissue (Figure 6.3.6). It makes up the outer cortex of all bones and is in firsthand contact with the periosteum. In long bones, as you movement from the outer cortical compact bone to the inner medullary crenel, the bone transitions to spongy bone.

A generic long bone is shown at the top of this illustration. The bone is split in half lengthwise to show its internal anatomy. The outer gray covering of the bone is labeled the periosteum. Within the periosteum is a thin layer of compact bone. The compact bone surrounds a central cavity called the medullary cavity. The medullary cavity is filled with spongy bone at the two epiphyses. A callout box shows that the main image is zooming in on the compact bone on the left side of the bone. On the main image, the periosteum is being peeled back to show its two layers. The outer layer of the periosteum is the outer fibrous layer. This layer has a periosteal artery and a periosteal vein running along its outside edge. The inner layer of the periosteum is labeled the inner osteogenic layer. The compact bone lies to the right of the periosteum and occupies the majority of the main image. Two flat layers of compact bone line the inner surface of the ostegenic periosteum. These sheets of compact bone are called the circumferential lamellae. The majority of the compact bone has lamellae running perpendicular to that of the circumferential lamellae. These concentric lamellae are arranged in a series of concentric tubes. There are small cavities between the layers of concentric lamellae called lacunae. The centermost concentric lamella surrounds a hollow central canal. A blue vein, a red artery, a yellow nerve and a green lymph vessel run vertically through the central canal. A set of concentric lamellae, its associated lacunae and the vessels and nerves of the central canal are collectively called an osteon. The front edge of the diagram shows a longitudinal cross section of one of the osteons. The vessels and nerve are visible running through the center of the osteon throughout its length. In addition, blood vessels can run from the periosteum through the sides of the osteons and connect with the vessels of the central canal. The blood vessels travel through the sides of the osteons via a perforating canal. The open areas between neighboring osteons are also filled with compact bone. This
Effigy 6.3.half-dozen – Diagram of Compact Os: (a) This cross-sectional view of compact os shows several osteons, the basic structural unit of compact os. (b) In this micrograph of the osteon, you can see the concentric lamellae around the central canals. LM × 40. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of Academy of Michigan Medical School © 2012)
Figure 6.3.seven Osteon

If you lot look at meaty os under the microscope, you lot will discover a highly organized arrangement of concentric circles that look similar tree trunks. Each grouping of concentric circles (each "tree") makes upwards the microscopic structural unit of compact bone called an osteon (this is also called a Haversian system). Each band of the osteon is made of collagen and calcified matrix and is chosen a lamella (plural = lamellae). The collagen fibers of adjacent lamallae run at perpendicular angles to each other, assuasive osteons to resist twisting forces in multiple directions (see figure half-dozen.34a). Running down the center of each osteon is the central culvert, or Haversian canal, which contains claret vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels. These vessels and fretfulness branch off at right angles through a perforating culvert, also known every bit Volkmann'due south canals, to extend to the periosteum and endosteum. The endosteum also lines each primal canal, allowing osteons to be removed, remodeled and rebuilt over fourth dimension.

The osteocytes are trapped within their lacuane, constitute at the borders of adjacent lamellae. As described earlier, canaliculi connect with the canaliculi of other lacunae and eventually with the cardinal canal. This system allows nutrients to exist transported to the osteocytes and wastes to be removed from them despite the impervious calcified matrix.

Spongy (Cancellous) Bone

Like compact bone, spongy bone, also known as cancellous bone, contains osteocytes housed in lacunae, but they are non bundled in concentric circles. Instead, the lacunae and osteocytes are found in a lattice-similar network of matrix spikes called trabeculae (singular = trabecula) (Effigy vi.3.8). The trabeculae are covered by the endosteum, which tin can readily remodel them. The trabeculae may announced to be a random network, but each trabecula forms along lines of stress to direct forces out to the more solid compact bone providing force to the bone. Spongy bone provides rest to the dense and heavy compact os by making bones lighter so that muscles tin move them more hands. In addition, the spaces in some spongy bones contain red os marrow, protected by the trabeculae, where hematopoiesis occurs.

This illustration shows the spongy bone within the proximal epiphysis of the femur in two successively magnified images. The lower-magnification image shows two layers of crisscrossing trabeculae. The surface of each is dotted with small black holes which are the openings of the canaliculi. One of the trabeculae is in a cross section to show its internal layers. The outermost covering of the lamellae is called the endosteum. This endosteum surrounds several layers of concentric lamellae. The higher-magnification image shows the cross section of the trabeculae more clearly. Three concentric lamellae are shown in this view, each possessing perpendicular black lines. These lines are the canaliculi and are oriented on the round lamellae similar to the spokes of a wheel. In between the lamellae are small cavities called lacunae which house cells called osteocytes. In addition, two large osteoclasts are seated on the outer edge of the outermost lamellae. The outermost lamellae are also surrounded by groups of small, white, osteoblasts.
Effigy half-dozen.3.eight – Diagram of Spongy Bone: Spongy bone is composed of trabeculae that contain the osteocytes. Red marrow fills the spaces in some bones.

Crumbling and the…Skeletal System: Paget's Disease

Paget's illness normally occurs in adults over historic period forty. Information technology is a disorder of the bone remodeling procedure that begins with overactive osteoclasts. This ways more os is resorbed than is laid down. The osteoblasts try to compensate but the new bone they lay down is weak and brittle and therefore prone to fracture.

While some people with Paget'due south disease accept no symptoms, others experience pain, os fractures, and bone deformities (Figure 6.3.9). Bones of the pelvis, skull, spine, and legs are the almost unremarkably affected. When occurring in the skull, Paget'south illness can cause headaches and hearing loss.

This illustration shows the normal skeletal structure of the legs from an anterior view. The flesh of the legs and feet are outlined around the skeleton for reference. A second illustration shows the legs of someone with Paget's disease. The affected person's left femur is curved outward, causing the left leg to be bowed and shorter than the right leg.
Effigy 6.3.9 – Paget's Affliction: Normal leg bones are relatively straight, but those afflicted by Paget'south disease are porous and curved.

What causes the osteoclasts to get overactive? The respond is still unknown, but hereditary factors seem to play a role. Some scientists believe Paget'south disease is due to an as-yet-unidentified virus.

Paget'due south disease is diagnosed via imaging studies and lab tests. X-rays may show bone deformities or areas of bone resorption. Bone scans are also useful. In these studies, a dye containing a radioactive ion is injected into the body. Areas of bone resorption accept an affinity for the ion, and so they will lite up on the scan if the ions are absorbed. In addition, claret levels of an enzyme chosen alkaline phosphatase are typically elevated in people with Paget's disease. Bisphosphonates, drugs that decrease the action of osteoclasts, are oftentimes used in the handling of Paget's disease.

Blood and Nerve Supply

The spongy bone and medullary cavity receive nourishment from arteries that pass through the compact bone. The arteries enter through the nutrient foramen (plural = foramina), minor openings in the diaphysis (Figure half-dozen.three.10). The osteocytes in spongy bone are nourished by blood vessels of the periosteum that penetrate spongy bone and blood that circulates in the marrow cavities. As the blood passes through the marrow cavities, it is collected by veins, which then pass out of the bone through the foramina.

In improver to the claret vessels, nerves follow the same paths into the bone where they tend to concentrate in the more metabolically active regions of the bone. The nerves sense hurting, and it appears the nerves as well play roles in regulating claret supplies and in bone growth, hence their concentrations in metabolically active sites of the bone.

This illustration shows an anterior view if the right femur. The femur is split in half lengthwise to show its internal anatomy. The outer covering of the femur is labeled the periosteum. Within it is a thin layer of compact bone that surrounds a central cavity called the medullary or marrow cavity. This cavity is filled with spongy bone at both epiphyses. A nutrient artery and vein travels through the periosteum and compact bone at the center of the diaphysis. After entering the bone, the nutrient arteries and veins spread throughout the marrow cavity in both directions. Some of the arteries and veins in the marrow cavity also spread into the spongy bone within the distal and proximal epiphyses. However, additional blood vessels called the metaphyseal arteries and the metaphyseal veins enter into the metaphysis from outside of the bone.
Figure half dozen.3.10 – Diagram of Blood and Nerve Supply to Bone: Blood vessels and nerves enter the bone through the nutrient foramen.

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Watch this video to see the microscopic features of a bone.

Chapter Review

A hollow medullary crenel filled with xanthous marrow runs the length of the diaphysis of a long bone. The walls of the diaphysis are compact os. The epiphyses, which are wider sections at each cease of a long os, are filled with spongy bone and carmine marrow. The epiphyseal plate, a layer of hyaline cartilage, is replaced by osseous tissue as the organ grows in length. The medullary crenel has a delicate membranous lining called the endosteum. The outer surface of bone, except in regions covered with articular cartilage, is covered with a fibrous membrane chosen the periosteum. Apartment bones consist of ii layers of compact bone surrounding a layer of spongy bone. Bone markings depend on the function and location of bones. Articulations are places where two basic encounter. Projections stick out from the surface of the os and provide attachment points for tendons and ligaments. Holes are openings or depressions in the bones.

Bone matrix consists of collagen fibers and organic footing substance, primarily hydroxyapatite formed from calcium salts. Osteogenic cells develop into osteoblasts. Osteoblasts are cells that make new bone. They become osteocytes, the cells of mature os, when they get trapped in the matrix. Osteoclasts engage in os resorption. Compact bone is dumbo and equanimous of osteons, while spongy bone is less dumbo and fabricated up of trabeculae. Claret vessels and nerves enter the bone through the nutrient foramina to nourish and innervate basic.

Review Questions

Critical Thinking Questions

one. If the articular cartilage at the end of ane of your long bones were to degenerate, what symptoms do y'all think y'all would feel? Why?

2. In what ways is the structural makeup of compact and spongy bone well suited to their respective functions?

Glossary

articular cartilage
sparse layer of cartilage covering an epiphysis; reduces friction and acts as a daze absorber
articulation
where two bone surfaces meet
canaliculi
(atypical = canaliculus) channels within the bone matrix that house ane of an osteocyte's many cytoplasmic extensions that it uses to communicate and receive nutrients
central canal
longitudinal channel in the middle of each osteon; contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels; also known equally the Haversian canal
meaty bone
dense osseous tissue that can withstand compressive forces
diaphysis
tubular shaft that runs between the proximal and distal ends of a long bone
diploë
layer of spongy bone, that is sandwiched between two the layers of compact bone constitute in apartment basic
endosteum
delicate membranous lining of a bone'south medullary cavity
epiphyseal plate
(also, growth plate) canvas of hyaline cartilage in the metaphysis of an immature bone; replaced by bone tissue as the organ grows in length
epiphysis
broad section at each end of a long bone; filled with spongy bone and red marrow
pigsty
opening or depression in a bone
lacunae
(atypical = lacuna) spaces in a os that house an osteocyte
medullary cavity
hollow region of the diaphysis; filled with xanthous marrow
nutrient foramen
small opening in the middle of the external surface of the diaphysis, through which an avenue enters the bone to provide nourishment
osteoblast
jail cell responsible for forming new bone
osteoclast
cell responsible for resorbing bone
osteocyte
primary jail cell in mature bone; responsible for maintaining the matrix
osteogenic prison cell
undifferentiated cell with loftier mitotic action; the only bone cells that dissever; they differentiate and develop into osteoblasts
osteon
(likewise, Haversian system) basic structural unit of measurement of compact bone; made of concentric layers of calcified matrix
perforating canal
(also, Volkmann's culvert) channel that branches off from the central canal and houses vessels and fretfulness that extend to the periosteum and endosteum
periosteum
fibrous membrane covering the outer surface of bone and continuous with ligaments
projection
bone markings where part of the surface sticks out above the rest of the surface, where tendons and ligaments attach
spongy bone
(too, cancellous os) trabeculated osseous tissue that supports shifts in weight distribution
trabeculae
(atypical = trabecula) spikes or sections of the lattice-like matrix in spongy os

Solutions

Answers for Critical Thinking Questions

  1. If the articular cartilage at the end of 1 of your long bones were to deteriorate, which is actually what happens in osteoarthritis, you would experience joint pain at the end of that os and limitation of motion at that joint because there would be no cartilage to reduce friction between next bones and there would be no cartilage to act equally a shock absorber.
  2. The densely packed concentric rings of matrix in meaty bone are ideal for resisting compressive forces, which is the function of compact bone. The open up spaces of the trabeculated network of spongy bone allow spongy bone to support shifts in weight distribution, which is the role of spongy bone.

Bone Markings

Define and list examples of os markings

The surface features of bones vary considerably, depending on the role and location in the torso. Table 6.2 describes the os markings, which are illustrated in (Figure 6.3.4). There are 3 full general classes of os markings: (1) articulations, (ii) projections, and (3) holes. As the name implies, an articulation is where two os surfaces come up together (articulus = "joint"). These surfaces tend to conform to 1 another, such as one being rounded and the other cupped, to facilitate the part of the articulation. A project is an area of a bone that projects to a higher place the surface of the bone. These are the attachment points for tendons and ligaments. In general, their size and shape is an indication of the forces exerted through the attachment to the bone. A hole is an opening or groove in the os that allows blood vessels and nerves to enter the bone. Every bit with the other markings, their size and shape reflect the size of the vessels and nerves that penetrate the bone at these points.

Bone Markings (Tabular array half dozen.2)
Marking Clarification Instance
Articulations Where two basic meet Knee
Head Prominent rounded surface Head of femur
Facet Apartment surface Vertebrae
Condyle Rounded surface Occipital condyles
Projections Raised markings Spinous procedure of the vertebrae
Protuberance Protruding Chin
Process Prominence characteristic Transverse process of vertebra
Spine Sharp process Ischial spine
Tubercle Small, rounded process Tubercle of humerus
Tuberosity Rough surface Deltoid tuberosity
Line Slight, elongated ridge Temporal lines of the parietal bones
Crest Ridge Iliac crest
Holes Holes and depressions Foramen (holes through which blood vessels can pass through)
Fossa Elongated basin Mandibular fossa
Fovea Small pit Fovea capitis on the caput of the femur
Sulcus Groove Sigmoid sulcus of the temporal bones
Canal Passage in bone Auditory culvert
Cleft Slit through bone Auricular crevice
Foramen Hole through os Foramen magnum in the occipital bone
Meatus Opening into culvert External auditory meatus
Sinus Air-filled space in bone Nasal sinus
This illustration contains three diagrams. The left diagram is titled examples of processes formed where tendons or ligaments attach. The image shows an anterior view of the femur and an anterior view of the humerus. For the femur, the distal epiphysis contains a smaller lateral bulge and a larger medial bulge. These are examples of condyles. The inner halves of the two condyles as well as the groove between them compose a facet. An oval-shaped ridge on the medial surface of the distal metaphysis is an example of a tubercle. On the proximal epiphysis of the femur, the large knob that attaches to the hip socket is an example of a head. The tip of the head contains a small depression, an example of a fovea called the fovea capitis. On the humerus, the distal epiphysis contains a central depression that is an example of a fossa. Two condyles are located on the right and left sides of the fossa. The diaphysis of the humerus contains a small ridge running up the shaft that is an example of a tuberosity. The proximal epiphysis of the humerus contains a lateral and a medial bulge that are both examples of tubercles. Finally, a narrow groove runs from the center of the proximal metaphysis in between the medial and lateral condyles. This is an example of a sulcus. The middle image is entitled elevations or depressions. It shows an anterior view of the hip bones. The hip bones are shaped like two wings that join at the bottom. The crest along the upper edge of each hip bones, at the tip of each
Figure 6.iii.4 Bone Features The surface features of bones depend on their function, location, zipper of ligaments and tendons, or the penetration of blood vessels and nerves.

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